Chapter IV. Penalty

Article 36.In the case of reproduction, imitation, or piracy of the writings of others, the offender shall be liable to a fine between $50 and $500. Persons undertaking the sale of such books with the knowledge of such an offence shall be subject to the same penalty.

Article 37.Any person violating any provision of Articles 27 and 30 is liable to a fine between $40 and $400.

Article 38.Any person violating any provision of Article 28 and of Clause (b) of Article 31 is liable to a fine between $30 and $300.

Article 39.If false statements are made at the time of registration or the provisions of Article 17 are not followed, beside the cancellation of the copyright, a fine between $20 and $200 shall be imposed.

Article 40.If a false date of registration is recorded at the end of a book which has not been registered, a fine between $10 and $100 shall be imposed.

Article 41.All books, for which fines have been imposed in accordance with the Law, shall be confiscated.

Article 42.The violation of copyright referred to in Articles 36 and 37 shall not, be considered unless an action has been brought by the injured party, but this does not apply to the violation o1 Article 27 after the death of the original author.

Article 43.Prosecution of infringement of copyright, as in accordance with this Law. shall be brought about not later than two years after registration.

Chapter V. Appendix

Article 44.This Law shall have effect from the date of promulgation.

Article 45.Books registered previous to the enforcement of this Law shall enjoy protection from the date of promulgation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A- kuei and others.. Pa hsun wan shou sheng tien: Collection of congratulatory documents on the occasion of EmperorCh'ien Lung'g eightieth birthday. Peking, 1792. 40 ts'ein 8 t'ao.

Allman, N.F. Handbook on the practice of trade-marks, patents, copyrights and trade names in China. Shanghai Kelly & Walsh, 1924. 207p.

Chang Feng. Chang feng tzu tien: A Chinese dictionary, Shanghai, Chung Hua Book Co., 1928. 354P.

Chang Tai-yll. Ti chien t'u shou: A collection of historical instances for the guidance of the emperor. Shun Chung T'ang, 1573. 6 ts'e in I t'ao. Chang Wei-hsiang. Li nien lu hui p'ien: A Chinese biographical dictionary. Hsiao Shuang Chi An. 1925. 8 ts'e in I t'ao.

Ch'en Chen-sun. Chih chai shu lu chieh t'i: Catalogue of a private library. Peking, 1774. Io ts'e in I t'ao.

Ch'en Meng-lei and others. T'u shu chi cheng: A Chinese encyclopedia. Peking, Wu Ying Tien, 1726. 5020 ts'e in 528 t'ao.

Ch'en Ting.chin and others. .K'ang hsi tzu tien: A Chinese dictionary. Shanghai, Pao Wen Book Co., 1893. 6 ts'e in I t'ao.

Chia Ssu-hsieh.. Ch'i rain yao shu: A treatise on practical husbandry. T'ung Lu, Yuan Ch'ang, 1896. 4 ts'e in I t'ao

Ching shih t'u shu kuan shan pen shu mu: Rare hooks in the Metropolitan Library. Peking, Metrol3olitan Librarye 1916. 4 ts'e in I t'ao.

Chu Hsi, editor. Ssu shu: Four books, n.p., 1189. 24 ts'e in 4 t'ao.

Chu-ko Liang. Chung wu bao chu ko kung ruing hsien sheng ch'uan chi: Collection of the writings of Chu-ko Liang. Chn Chert Chai, 1862. I2 ts'e in I t'ao.

Commercial Press. T'u shu hui pao: A catalogue of the publications of the Commercial Press, Shanghai, Commercial Press, 1927. 244P.

Fa ling ta ch'uan: Complete laws and ordinances of the Republic of China. Shanghai, Commercial 'Press, 1924. 1658 p.

Fang Yu. Fang shih mo p'u: A treatise of Chinese inks. Mei Yin T'ang, 1588. 6 ts'e in I t'ao.

Feng Kuei-fen and others. Su chou fu chih: Gazetteer of Soochow. Nanking, Nanking Book Co, 1883. 8o ts'e in 8 t'ao.

Hsu Chiao. Fu an hsien sheng chi: Collection of the writings of Hsu Chiao. Wuhsi, The Hsu Family, 1926. 2 ts'e in 1 t'ao.

Li Ju.chen. Ching hua yuan: A novel. Shanghai, Oriental Book Co., 1925. 2v.

Liu I-cheng. Li tai shih lueh: An outline of Chinese history: Shanghai, Chung Hsin Book Co., 1905. 8 ts'e in I t'ao.

Lu Erh-k'uei and Fang I. Hsueh sheng tzu tien: A Chinese dictionary for the rise of students. Shanghai, Commercial Press, 1926. v,p

Sang Chiao and others. Lu shan t'ung chih: Gazetteer of the Lu Shan district. Yu Chang, 1661. 14 ts'e in 2 t'ao.

Shansi Provhlee. Shah hsi ts'un cheng hui p'ien: Local government of the Shansi province. Shansi, 1928. 6 ts'e in I t'ao.

Shen Kua.- Meng ch'i pi t'an: A collection of essays. Chi Ku Ko, 1631. 8 ts'e in 2 t'ao.

Ssu shu tu pen: Four books for the use of schools.Chu Sheng T'ang, 1874. 6 chuan in 1 t'ao.

T'ang Chin-kao. Hsin wen hua tzu shu: An encyclopedic dictionary of new knowledge. Shanghai, Commercial Press, 1923. 1105P.

Tsang Li-h'uo and others. Chung kuo jen ruing ta tsu tien: Cyclopedia of Chinese biographical material. Shanghai, Commercial Press, 1927. 1808p.

Tu, H. T.C. The effects of different arrangements of the Chinese characters upon speed and comprehension in silent reading. Peking, Chinese Social and Political Science Review, X, (April, 1926),178-301

Twenty four dynastic histories. Wu Lin, Chu Chien Chai, 1892. 200 ts'e in 20 t'ao.

CHAPTER III

AUTHOR, TITLE AND IMIPRINT AUTHOR

For library purposes, the term author is extended to signify any agency by whom a book was composed. As in Europe, a Chinese librarian will apply this term to a person, or bodies of men. Such as associations, boards, societies, etc., who are responsible for their transactions, journals, memoirs, debates, reports, and so on.

Chinese authors, unlike European writers, never abbreviate their names to initials, but this advantage is overshadowed by the fact that an author may possess several names, ranging from one to the possibility of eight in number.1

The origin of Chinese surnames or family names can be traced back to Yu, the Great, founder of the Hsia dynasty (2205-1766 B.C.). After assuaging a tremendous deluge by deepening the beds of the rivers and opening new channels, he divided the. Country into nine regions and assigned them to his followers with different designations. As a result, the present Chinese surnames’ are partly derived from the names of large

1. Among those who had a large number of names were Wang Shih-cheng (1634-1711} and Chu Hsi (1130-1200). The former was the President of the Board of Punishments from 1699-1704. His names were (l) Wang Shih-shen. (2) Wang-I-shang, (3) Wang Yuan-t'ing, (4) Wang Shih-sheng, (5) Yu Yang Shun Jen (pseudonym)and (6) Wane Wen-chien (canonized name).

As to Chu Hsi. he is hog only famous for his commentaries on the Chinese Classics, but also for the names he possessed, such as (1)Chu Hsi. (2) Chu yuan-hui, (3) Chu Hui-an. (4) Chu Hui-weng, (5) Chu Hsin-an. (6) Chu Wen-kung, (7) Chu Chung-hui, and (8) Yun Ku Shun Jen. Cf Tsang Li-h'uo and others, op. cit.

political units, l partly from the names of cities,2 partly from he names of rural districts,3 partly from the names of clans,4 partly from the names of official positions,5 partly from the names of professions or occupations,6 partly from the names of the seniority Of birth in the family7 and partly from the environment.8 At present there are about four thousand different surnames, made up of one character or more.9

A number of books have been written by the ecclesiastics, namely, the Buddhists and Taoists. As to the former, when one enters the Buddhist orders, he gives up all human ties, even his surname, or family name. He calls himself shih, or seng (meaning a follower of Buddha), and selects a literary name, taken from the Buddhist world of ideas.10 With reference to the latter, the family names are retained, but in

1. Such as Lu. now used as a surname, but formerly a term signifying part of Shantung province And Kiangsu province

2. Such as Ts'ui. Pao, Yen.

3. Such as Fei, P'ang

4. Such as Yao, Ying, Chiang.

5. Such as Tai-shih (meaning official recorder); Ssu-ma (meaning the field marshal).

6. Such as Po (fortune-telling).

7. Such as Po (indicating first), Chung (indicating second},Shu (indicating third), Chi (indicating fourth).

8. Such as Ch'iao (bridge); Chu (dwelling).

9. A comprehensive list of surnames can he found in Ch'en Meng-lei and others, T'u shu chi cheng; A Chinese encyclopedia (Peking: Wu Ying Tien, 1726), section on clans, chuan 21-640. The most common surnames are monosyllabic, amounting to 2,545. There are 1,102 two-character surnames. 88 three-character surnames, and 3 four-character surnames. The total number is 3,738. Out of these surnames H.A. Giles included a selected list of 2,172; 1,836 have one character; 316 two characters; 17 three characters; and 3 four characters; in his Chinese-English dictionary (London: B. Quariteh; 1892),

10. Hsuan Tsang (602-664) was the famous Chinese Buddhist priest who set out for India in 629. with a view to bring back copies of the sacred books of Buddhism. His original name was Ch'en I; but as soon as he became a monk, he changed to Hsfian Tsang. Cf. San tsang ching, edited by him, now in the possession of the Newberry Library.

order to be different from the laymen, such term as tao shih (Taoist adherent) or chen jen (a person with a pure mind), are appended to their full names.1 Well runs the Chinese proverb:-- “Do not ask a Buddhist priest his surname, nor a Taoist his appellation.”

As in the West, there are Chinese publications whose authorship is unknown, or whose alleged authorship is questionable. The commonest anonymous works are some of the classical writings, notably the Shih ching, or Book of Poetry.2 In regard to the apocryphal or spurious books; it is generally considered that there have been four historical periods in which they were fabricated on a large scale.

The age of Confucius and several centuries downwards gave birth to a succession of writers, such as Hui Shih (380-300 B. C.), Chuangtzu (335-275 B. C.), Hsuntzu (315-235 B. C.) and others, who were distinguished for their theories and teachings. In order to lend authority to their theories and teachings, as has been proven by later critics, they sometimes attributed various writings to persons who were long dead.3

During the second period, under the Ch'in dynasty (249-_206 B.C.). Literary activities were suppressed. Emperors of

1. Lao Tzu (born circa B.C. 604) is regarded as the founder of the Taoist religion. He professed to have found the clue to all things human and divine which he was supposed to have been included in the Tao te ching: A way of life.

2. Shih ching is a selection of poems, which has been claimed to have been written in the Chou dynasty (1122-249 B.C.). The whole 311 poems with an average length of 100 characters for each poem are arranged according to the differences in their styles. No authorship has been ascribed.

3. Liang Ch'i-ch'ao, one of the leading Chinese scholars of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, made a special inquiry into the spurious books of this period. Among those which he listed as forgeries is Chou pi suan ching: A treatise on astronomy and astrology, attributed to Chou Kung (died B.C. 11O5). For further details see Liang Ch'i -ch'ao, Pien wei shu: How to distinguish spurious books, The Eastern Miscellany XXI (I924), 66-82.

the succeeding dynasty undertook the erection of buildings for the reception of records of the past. People were induced to bring forward their literary treasures. By so doing spurious works were encouraged.1

Buddhism was formally introduced into China from India during the reign of Emperor Ming Ti (A. D. 58-76). There was a legend that the emperor had a dream in which he saw a giant; and that when he narrated it to his ministers, one of them immediately informed him that it was Buddha. The envoys who were sent to inquire into the faith returned about A.D.65 with two Indian priests and a number of sacred writings. At the same time the adherents of Taoism and Confucianism were much opposed to the progress of the new religion. The climax of their conflict seemed to have been reached when they produced spurious writings to prove their relative superiority.2

In 583 A.D. Niu Hung (died A.D. 610), a foremost scholar of the Sui dynasty, induced the emperor to collect the ancient literature. Every book, accepted for preservation by the government, brought its owner honor and reward. Not infrequently contemporary writers attributed their own works to the ancient savants, in order to receive the honorary reward.3

1. A good example is the Ku wen shang shu: Book of Histovyin ancient text, which was claimed to have been found in the walls of the house of Confucius.

2. Lick hsien chuan: A Taoist biography of seventy, one individuals who have attained the state of immortality has been claimed to have been written by Liu Hstang (B. C. 80-B. C. 9), who was connected with the Imperial Library for some time. For various reasons there is sufficient ground to believe that it was a spurious work, sponsored by the Taoist followers. One explanation is that had the author written it, the official catalogue of the Han dynasty would have certainly mentioned it.

3. For example, Yuch chuch shu: A historical treatise has been ascribed to Tuan-mu Tz'u (born B.C. 52), a disciple of Confucius. Cf.Yao Chi-heng, ku chin wei shu h'ao: A research on spurious books, ancient and modern (Peiping: Chin Shan Shu She, 1929).

The vast majority of Chinese printed books have at, or near, the beginning a title page. Owing to the complication of Chinese family and personal names, a well-chosen book-title is more distinctive and more easily remembered than the whole name of the author.

For the sake of convenience, the titles of Chinese books may be divided into four categories, namely; (1) descriptive (2) symbolical, (3) allusive, and (4) miscellaneous.

The essential characteristic of a descriptive title is that it states the contents of the book in a plain and concise form, such as:

(1) Han ch'ang li ch'uan chi: Complete writings of Han Ch'ang-li.1

(2) Chung kuo pao hsueh shih: History of Chinese journalism.2

(3) Chih wu hsiieh ta tzu tien: Cyclopedic dictionary of botany.3

The symbolical titles indicate the contents indirectly, though in many cases just as effectiyely as the descriptive ones. For example:--

(4) Ch'un chin tso shih chuan: Notes on the Tso's Spring and Autumn commentary.4

1. See the title page of Han Ch'ang-li, Han ch'ang li chuan chi: Complete writings of Han Ch'ang-li (Shanghai: Sao Yeh Shan Fang Book Co., 1911).

2. See the title page of Ko Kung-chen, Chung huo pao hsueh shih: History of Chinese journalism (Shanghai: Commercial Press. 1927).

3. See the title page of Tu Ya-chuan, Chih wu hsuch ta tzu tien: Cyclopedic dictionary of botany (Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1923).

4. See the title page of Ch'un chin tso shih chuan. Notes on the Tso’s Spring and Autumn commentary, edited by Tu Yu, (Mo Wan Hsien Kuan, 1887). In this case, "spring" means the causes of things, similar to the growth of plants; and "autumn" connotes the results, or reaping of the harvest. When these two words are used together, the writer has in mind the causes and results of events, namely, history. Since this symbolical meaning is conventionally established the title will be quite as clear to a Chinese scholar as would its equivalent "Notes on Tso's history."

(2) San ts'ai tsao i: Strange phenomena of/he three forces of nature.1

As to the allusive titles, they are not intelligent to readers who have no knowledge of the contents of the books, for instance. --

(1) Hsiyu chi: A mission to the West.2

(2) Hung lou meng: The dream of the red chamber.3

All titles which cannot be classified under the above three categories may well be put under the miscellaneous heading. Some of them are very misleading, and often disappoint the readers, such as.-

(1) Shan hai ching chien su: Commentary on the mountain and river classic.4

(2) Tung nan chi shih: A record of the southeast.5 When the title, or the title-page, fails to describe the book from the bibliographical standpoint, the colophon may

1. See the title page of T'u Ts'ui-ching. San tsal tsao i: Strange phenemena of the three Jorces of nature (The Author. I689). The three forces in question are understood by the Cbinese scholar as (1) the heaven (2) the earth, and (3) the man.

2. The author of this book is unknown. Howvever, the mission, here referred to, is an allusion to the sendmg of Hsuan Tsang (6o2-664) to India in search of books, images and relics re illustrate the Buddhist religion.

3 Again the name of the author is a secret, though Ts'ao Hsudeh-ch'in (17th century A.D.) has been considered as the possible author. The allusion is to the fictitious facts of the book. just as the happenings in a dream.

4. Kuo P'o. Shah hai ching chlen su: Commentary on the mountain and river classic (Yangchow: -Yuan Yuan 1806). As shown by the title. One may entertain high hopes for material about the constitution and conditions of the mountains and rivers; but, in reality, it is a collection of tales and stories.

5. Shao T'ung-ts'ai, Tung nan chi shih: A record of the south-east (Shoo Wu: The Hsu Family. 1884), From the title no clear conception of the book can be derived: but from the contents, it treats about the historical happenings toward the end of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644).

fulfill the need. Its location never varies and this is at the the end of the book. A representative colophon is given as follows:-1

"This book, Liao chat chi i. with 16 chuan, was written by my grandfather, P'u Liu-ch'uan, also known as P'u Liu-hsien. Liao chai was derived from the name of his study-room. Though an excellent scholar and a most polished writer, he failed, as many good men have done to join the official life. Meanwhile, he was occupying himself with teaching the students, and with writing stories of a supernatural nature. When the collection of .stories was completed in 1679, friends and neighbors eagerly came t(y-borrow and copy the book. With a hope of enlarging" the, reading public, the work is herewith published and presented to the public.

P'u Li-te (grandson of the author) in the fifth year of Emperor Ch'ien Lung (1740)."

As the title page cannot be always on the first leaf of the book, it may be preceded by copyright notices for books published before the promulgation of the Law of Copyright.2

1. See the colophon of P'u Sung-liang, Liao chai chi i: A collection of supernatural stories (Shanghai: ChiangTso Book Co., 1740).

2. The following copyright notice is taken from Lin I-cheng, Li tai shlh luch: An outline of Chinese history (Shanghai: Chung Hsin Co., 1905).

Liu I-cheng, a school teacher; has petitioned about the copyright of his outline of Chinese history, which has been considered suitable as a textbook for the high schools. With a view to creating a wide circulation, the Chung Hsin Company has agreed to print it by lead type. The public is hereby notified that there should be no reproduction of this book without the consent of the author. Proper punishment will be given to the offenders.

Yuan. Governor of the Su Sung district, on the seventh day of the ninth moon of the thirty first year of Emperor Kuang Hslt (1905)."

In some cases there are impressions of seals on the title page, showing ownership of the book.

For a variety of reasons, the title page may be cancelled, sometimes to change the name of the publisher when a portion of an already printed edition has been sold to another publisher, and sometimes to foist the unsold copies of a book to the public in the guise of an older or later edition, as the case may be.

IMPRINT

Imprint includes the place, publisher and date of publication. Must of the Chinese place names are composed of two characters. For library purposes the name of the place of publication should be given exactly as it occurs on the titIe page, or in the book. If several places are mentioned, it is not necessary to record more than the first.

In general a publisher is an individual or company responsible for the publication and sale of a book. Other things being equal, the general reputation of a publisher may influence the choice of a reader, who knows his format and printing standards as well as his prevailing interests.

The date is one of the most significant items of a book. If it is not on the title page, one must determine it somehow. It may be found on the title page, at the

1. Pao T'ing-po, Cllih pu tsu chai ts'ung shu: A collection of reprints (Ch'ang Tang: The Pao Family,1822). A copy of this book, now in the possession of the Newberry Library, has the seal impressions on the title page.

2. For instace. Shanghai is composed of two Chinese characters (I)Shang, meaning above and (2) Hai, meaning ocean ; similarly Hankow is composed of (I) Han, meaning the Han River and (2) Kow, meaning the mouth.

3. The Commercial Press within the last decade published all the textbooks in modern style, and not in stabbed oinding.

4. Chang Shang-lai, Chao tai ts'ung shu: A collection of reprints (Shih K'ai T'ang, 1833). The date of this book is on the title page.

end of the preface, on the fore-edges of the leaves, in the colophon, or on the penultimate page of the text.If it is not cited in the work at all, a probable date may be derived by examining ,the text, 1 or by consulting reference tools, such as the catalogues of libraries. For works which take a long time for completion, it is advisable to note the date of both the first and the last volume.2

After finding the date, the next step is to ascertain the English equivalent, if necessary. While the West dates the era from the birth of Christ, the Mohammedans from the Hegira, or flight of Mohammed from Mecca, the Jews from the Creation, the Chinese start computing time from the reign of Emperor Huang Ti (Circa 2697-2598 B. C.). Each year is not known by the consecutive number, but first by the appellation chosen by the emperor to designate his period of rule and then by the terms of the chronological cycles of sixty years each. 3 Instead of numbers, each year of the cycle has a separate name, formed by taking ten characters, called T'ienkan or heavenly stems, and joining them with twelve other characters, entitled Ti chih, or earthly branches.

1. If has become a custom that all publications, issued by the Commercial Press and other similar companies, bear the information concerning the author, title, edition, volumes, publisher, date and price on the page next after the last page of the text in addition to what has already appeared on the title page.

2. Hsiao I-shah. Ch'in tai t'ung shih: A general history of the Manchu dynasty (1644-1911). So far two volumes of this work have been published by the Commercial Press, Shanghai. The first volume bears the date, 1927; and the second volume, 1928. In order to catalogue this, work, the date should be inclusive.

3. The first year of the first cycle began with the first year of Emperor Huang Ti (that is, 2697 B.C.). Up to 1930 there should be 4,627 years, or 77 cycles; and therefore the year, 1930, is the seventh year (Keng-wu) of the 77th cycle.

Table I. T' ien kan Table II. Ti chih

1. Chia 1. Tz

2. I 2. Ch' ou

3. Ping 3. Yin

4. Ting 4. Mao

5. Wu 5. Ch'en

6. Chi 6. Ssu

7. Keng 7. Wu

8. Hsin 8. Wei

9. Jen 9. Shen

10. Kuei 10. Yu

11. Shu

12. Hal

By combining these stems and branches two by two, be-ginning with Chia Tzu and repeating both series so often, until both Commence at the same time, the identical combination returns after the decimal cycle is repeated six times and the duodecimal cycle five times.

Before the inauguration of the Republic in 1912, the Chinese had officially adopted the lunar year, so that the twelve lunar months did not correspond with the period of the earth's revolution around the sun. Since 1912, the official calendar of China is the same as the West, with the exception that the year 1912 is designated as the first year of the era of the Chinese Republic, 1913 as the second year of that era, and so forth. It will be readily seen that dates prior to 1912 cannot be expressed in equivalent dates of the Christian era without careful calculation.

1. Much time can be saved by consulting Fu Yün-sen, Shih chieh tashih nien piao: A chronological table of world's great events, with special emphasis on Chinese chronology (Shanghai: Commercial Press. 1914).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chang Shang-lai, ed. Chao tai ts'ung shu: A collection of reprints. Shih K'ai T'ang, 1833. 172 ts'e in 22 tao.

Ch'en Meng-lei and others. T'u shu chi cheng: A Chinese encyclopedia. Peking, Wu Ying Tien, 1726: 5020-ts e in 528 t'ao.

Fu Yün-sen. Shih chieh ta shih nien piao: A chronological table of world's great events, with special emphasis on Chinese chronology. Shanghai, Commercial Press, 1914 356p .

Giles, Herbert Allen. A Chinese biographical dictionary. London, B. Quaritch, 1898. 1022p.

Giles, Herbert Allen. A Chinese-English dictionary. London, B. Quaritch, 1892. 1415p.

Han Ch'ang-li. Han ch'ang li ch'üan chi: Complete writings of Han Ch'ang-li. Shanghai, Sao Yeh Shan Fang Book Co., 1911, 3 ts'e in I t'ao.

Hsiao I-shan. Ch'in tai t'ung shih: A general history of the Manchu dynasty (1644-1911). Shanghai, Commercial Press, 1927-8. 2v.

Ko Kung-chen. Chung kuo pao hsüeh shih: History of Chinese journalism. Shanghai, Commercial Press,I927. 385P.

Ktro P'o, ed. Shan hai ching chien su: Commentarv on the mountain and river classic. Yangchow, Yüan Yüan, 1805, 4 ts'e in 1 t'ao.

Liang Ch'i-ch'ao. Pien wei shu: How to distinguish spurious books. Shanghai, The Eastern- Miscellany, XXI (August 25, 1924), 66-82.

Liu I-cheng. Li tai shih lüeh: An outline of Chinese history. Shanghai, Chung Hsin Co., 1905. S ts'e in 1 t'ao.

Pao T'ing-po. Chih pu tsu chat ts'ung shu: A collection of reprints. Ch'ang T'ang, The Pao Family, I822. 240 ts'e in 30 t'ao.

P'u Sung-ling. Liao chat chi i: A collection of supernatural stories. Shanghai, Chiang Tso Book Co., 1740. 16 chüan in 8 ts'e.

Shao T'ung-ts'ai. Tung nan chi chih: A record of the south-east. Shao Wu, The Hsu Family, I884. 4 ts'e in i t'ao.

Tsang Li-h'uo and others. Chung kuo jen ming ta tz'u tien: Cyclopedia of Chinese biographical material. Shanghai,Commercial Press, 1927. 18o8p.

Tu Ya-chuan and others. Chih wu hsüeh ta tz'u tien: Cyclopedic dictionary of botany. Shanghai, Commercial Press, 1923. I59op

Tu Yü, ed. Ch'un chiu tso shih chuan: Notes on the Tso's Spring and Autumn commentary. ,Mo Wan Hsien Kuan, 1887. 6o chuan in 6 ts'e.

T'u Ts'ui-ching. San ts'ai tsao i: Strange phenomena of the three forces of nature. The Author, 1689. 16 ts'e in 2 t'ao.

Wang Yüan-fang, ed. Hsi yu chi: A mission to the West. 8th ed. Shanghai, Oriental Book Co., I928, 2 vol.

Wang Yüan-fang, ed. Hung lou meng: The dream of thered chamber. Shanghai, Oriental Book Co., 1927. 3v

Yao Chi-heng Ku chin wei shu k'ao: A research on spurious books, ancient and modern. Peiping, Chin Shan Shu She,1929. 18p.

CHAPTER Ⅳ

TEXT

For almost two thousand years, there have been in China two written languages—the classical and the colloquial. The former, well developed centuries ago, has become static and inflexible.1 It is dead, because it is neither spoken by the people, nor even auditorily intelligible to scholars, except when the phrases are familiar, or when the listener has already some idea as to what the speaker is going to say.

The colloquial language is the language for the common people which carries the same meaning and is uniformly understood throughout the country, through pronounced differently when read according to the variations of the local dialects.

The main difference between these two languages is neither in the form of writing, nor in the number of words, but rather in the extremely involved literary allusions to the classical works. It is similar to the divergence between a common English book, and some highly scientific or technical work so bristling with scientific terms or technical expressions that it is almost incomprehensible, except to one who has been trained for years.

Up to the last one or two decades, all education was carried on with the classical language as its medium. The highest ideal that parents used to hold up to their sons

1. The classical language was not generally understood even in the second century, B. C., when Kung-sun Hung (died B. C. 121), a Privy Councillor to Emperor Wu Ti, petitioned and said, “While the imperial edicts and laws that have been proclaimed are most elegantly worded and contain benevolent instructions, they are not generally understood by the public officers who are too inadequately educated to explain them to the people…” Chang P’u, Li tai ming ch’en tsou i: A collection of the memorials of the government officials of the different dynasties (n. p. 1635, chüan 113, leaf 2).

official life, and the only course of education followed was the classical one prescribed by the government. The main object of education was to win official honor and recognition on the strength of the ability to read and write in the classical language. It was to those who had successfully passed the civil examination that the emperor looked to govern and instruct the people; and it was also to them that the addition of the literature of the nation was augumented and produced.1

All the literature from the so-called Confucian classics down to the flourishing literature of the Manchu dynasty (1644-1911) was written almost entirely in the classical language, with one remarkable exception. In every period of invasions and wars, involving contacts with strangers, the colloquial language proposed.2

The movement for the education of the colloquial language for all literary purposes can be traced to a large number of writers who were in one way or another attracted by it,3 but there was no organization, and no conscious recognition of the fact that it should be the legitimate medium of literary communication, on account of its directions, simplicity and closeness to everyday conversation.

In these days of hustle and bustle, the linguistic inadequacy becomes more evident than heretofore. Responding to the popular demand for democracy and universal

1. Most of the Chinese high officials in the last regime were scholars as well as writers. For instance, Chang Chih-tung (1835-1910) who had been the viceroy of Liang Kuang, viceroy of Liang Kiang and also viceroy of Liang Hu, was responsible for several books, including his widely known book, Chüan hsüeh p’ien: To learn.

2. Thus, during the fourth, fifth and sixth centuries, A. D., when China was invaded by the people from the north, popular poems in the colloquial style were composed; some of which can be found in Cheng Tz’u-ch’an, Ku pai hua wen hsüan: A seclected collection of old writings in colloquial language (4th ed; Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1927).

3. One of the earlier works, partly written in literary style and partly written in colloquial language, is Chang Tai-yu, Ti chien t’u shou: A collection of historical instances (Shun Chung T’ang, 1573).

education, the literary examinations were abolished in 1905,1 in order to provide more attention to schools and colleges. Soon after the establishment of the Chinese Republic in 1912, there was on foot a movement, advocating the adoption of the colloquial language as the medium for all official and literary composition, such as textbooks, newspapers and other branches of literature.

From 1917 to 1919, this subject was ardently discussed, and met a very wide response from the general public. Shortly after 1919, a number of periodicals which were heretofore published in classical Chinese allied themselves with the new movement.2 Perhaps the most conspicuous achievement of the year 1919 was that the National Educational Association recommended that the colloquial language be taught in the primary schools.3 Many middle and normal schools have voluntarily adopted the textbooks in the colloquial language. Simultaneously, many literary and scientific works, both in translation and in the original, have been, and are being, printed in the style of the common people. The dialect upon which the colloquial language in written form is based is the

1. Shen T’ung-sheng, Kuang hsü cheng yao: Edicts, ordinances, and proclamations of Emperor Kuang Hsü (Shanghai: T’u Shu Co., 1909), chuan 31, leaf 57-9.

2. By comparing an issue of the Chiao yu tsa chi: The Educational Review (Shanghai: Commercial Press) of 1917, and a number of 1930. One is immediately struck by the difference of two styles, the classical style for the former and the colloquial language for the latter.

3. See the Chiao yu tsa chi: The Educational Review. Ⅺ (1919), 47-53; 55-70.

4. If credit should be given to any individuals for launching the movement, Ch’en Tu-hsiu and Hu Shih are now considered as the two outstanding figures.

one spoken in Peiping (former Peking), though officially standardized by the Ministry of Education.1

No less indispensable than the colloquial language itself is the adoption of a standard system, now officially promulgated,2 provides signs for period, comma, colon, etc., together with signs for proper names. In the classical language, there have been three kinds of punctuation, namely, the point which is equivalent to a comma, the circle, and the triangle, each of which is equivalent to a full-stop.3 The present Chinese publications are employing the new system of punctuation, so that ambiguity, so that ambiguity and confused interpretation may be reduced to a minimum. In other words, most of the recent publications are written in the colloquial language, and the controversial period is over in regard to its advisability for the people.

1. The dialects in China may be divided into two groups, (1) the mandarin group, and (2) the non-mandarin group. The former consists of dialects spoken by people extending over nine tenths of the territory. Those who belong to the group may speak with certain local accent, but they can understand each other as a whole. As to the latter, only people living in one-tenths of the territory are classified under this group. It is obvious that the colloquial language in written form should be based upon the mandarin group of dialects, of which the Peking dialect is the most important one. The Ministry of Education, in order to standardized the Chinese pronunciation, has prepared a pronouncing dictionary, entitled Kuo yin tzu tien: Dictionary of Chinese characters, with standardized pronunciation (Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1919). From its content one can easily see that the pronunciation is mainly, if not entirely, based upon the dialect of Peking (now peiping).

2. See the Chiao yu tsa chi: The Educational Review, Ⅶ (March, 1920), 1-2 of the last section.

3. Li I-shan, Li I shan shih chi: A collection of Li I-shan’s poems, annotated by Chu Ho-ling (Canton: Chu Ho-ling, 1870). Throughout the text, the punctuation marks of point, circle and triangle have been employed, in order to facilitate the reading and comprehension.

Textual criticism, as it has been practiced by the Chinese critics, falls into two parts:—(1) recension, or lower criticism, and (2) emendation, or higher criticism. By recension is meant the method whereby from a comparison of all the various variant versions of a text one determines the primitive form which underlies all of them. Such a selection is possible after a critical examination of all the evidence that is available. In many cases the whole process brings a critic appreciably nearer to the autograph, i. e. the text as it was originally written by the author.1

Emendation transcends the surviving forms. It is an attempt to eliminate the residuum of error which a document may be found to contain. It implies transcriptional or typographical probability, as well as intrinsic probability. On the one hand, it must explain how the copyist or printer came to err; and on the other hand, it deals with something that the author is likely to have written, suitable for the context and the author’s style.

By means of these two methods, numerous ancient texts have become more intelligible to the present-day students.2 So long as all texts are subject not only to the variabilities and idiosyncrasies of human nature in the first producer, but also to the errors and misconceptions of every person who has intervened, textual criticism is an important factor in establishing the degree of their reliability and accuracy.

1. A few of the outstanding critics were Huang P’ei-lieh (1763-1825), Lu Wen-ch’ao (1717-1795), and Tai Chen (1722-1777), who devoted their lives to literature and spent large sums of money in forming private collections and in commentating on the books. This can be seen from Huang P’ei-Lieh, Shih li chü ts’ang shu t’i po chi: A collection of notes, comments and criticisms of books (Wu Hsien: P’an Tsu-yin, 1882).

2. One of the typical examples is Huang ch’ing ching chieh: Commentary an text of the Thirteen Classics, edited by Yüan Yüan (Canton, Hsüeh Hai T’ang, 1829).

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